Research Methods

Research is an activity that we engage in many aspects and stages of our lives, especially as university students. Research can be described as a way of finding, retrieving and analyzing information in order to arrive at conclusions or decisions. According to Webster Dictionary (2013), research is defined as “careful study that is done to find and report new knowledge about something”. It can help in gaining new knowledge or skills or enhance the existing knowledge.

Clarke (2005) explains about 2 types of research models known

1.      Qualitative – contains non numerical data and involves extensive observations and interviews that provides situational specific results

2.      Quantitative – provides numerical data which is clear and more controlled involving statistical analysis, samples, procedures and hypotheses

The following table further explains these 2 types in respect to various assumptions

Figure 1 - Research models (Clarke, 2005)

Apart from the above 2 classifications, it can be further classified as basic, applied, experimental, correlational or historical as well.

Ranasinghe (2011) shows the basic steps of research as follows;

1.      Devising a research problem – selecting a problem that is a feasible risk. Research problems can devised through reading, brainstorming, challenging common beliefs, discussions with others etc.

2.      Preparing of a research design – includes aims of research, solutions, literature review, sampling methods, selected design approach, timelines etc.

3.      Constructing instruments for data collection

4.      Sample selection

5.      Writing the research proposal

6.      Data collection – through primary or secondary data

7.      Data processing

8.      Report writing

Research methods

Data collection methods for research can be mainly divided as primary research (data collected for first time) and secondary research (collecting existing data – reports, archives, books etc.).

v  Primary Data

Primary data are used to build up a theory or test a theory and can be conducted in various ways such as interviews, questionnaires, experiments, surveys, observations etc. This is an imperative stage of a project as it will help to determine the core problem and to acquire the necessary information.  Driscoll (2011) states that conducting primary research ethically is important as it collect raw data through personal interactions and should be done in a way that it will not disrupt processes and privacy. Driscoll (2011) provides certain pointers in order to conduct ethical primary research

• ·         Voluntary participation – permission should be obtained prior to conducting research from the relevant parties and officials
• ·         Confidentiality and anonymity – specific information revealed by participants should be anonymous as they will be sensitive information related to them or the organization.
• ·         Researcher bias – personal judgments and opinions shouldn't be brought forward when gathering and presenting information as it will lead to biasness

The following diagram depicts a timeline that can be used for primary research

Figure 2 - Primary research timeline (Driscoll, 2011)

Types of primary research

1.      Surveys

Surveys are method of quantitative research where a target population is selected and a questionnaire is administered in order to obtain information and data on the same variables are collected for or from each case. According to Queens Treasury and Trade (2013), the magnitude of the sample of the survey depends on the purpose of the study as it gathers information only from the interested parties. If other methods of research don’t yield the necessary information and if a clear idea is present about the information that is required, using a survey can be recommended as appropriate.

Queens Treasury and Trade (2013) further state some pointers to be kept in mind when conducting a survey;

·         Practicality – cost effectiveness, accuracy, willingness to give information, time management

·         Availability of necessary resources

·         Who, what and how to ask questions

·         Legislative power/authority to conduct surveys

As stated by Queens Treasury and Trade (2013) the following are the main steps involved in a survey

ü  Planning and designing

ü  Testing and modifying

ü  Conducting the survey

ü  Processing and analysis

In order to understand different methods of conducting surveys (postal, face to face, telephone, email), a role play was done by 2 student groups. The following table depicts the characteristics of these methods which were observed

Type	Strengths	Weaknesses
Face to face	·         Reliable responses can be obtained through observation of behavior and expressions ·         Easy determination of the proper meaning of the questions asked ·         As there’s a obligation to answer, the rate of answering is high	·         Sometimes people doesn’t like to be disturbed ·         Reluctance of giving honest opinions ·         Time consumption
Post	·         Ability to obtain honest opinions ·         Ability to reach out to a wider geographic and demographic range	·         Time consumption ·         Low responses ·         Loss of mail along the way ·         Inability to authenticate and clarify ·         Expensive
Telephone	·         Ability to obtain honest opinions as its not face to face ·         Higher response rate as people answer any call	·         Less reliable due to the possibility of obtaining wrong information ·         Inability to observe the proper behavior and expressions
Computer	·         Can reach to a wider respondent base ·         Less costly ·         Availability of ample time to answer questions	·         Less reliable ·         Less access to computer and other accessible devices

Table 1 - Analysis of survey methods

2.      Interviews

As stated by Kajornboon (2013) interviews are a popular way of conducting primary research as it helps in obtaining expert knowledge in particular areas. Interviews can be one on one question and answer session that can be done individually or as a group through face to face, phone or video conferences.

The main advantage of interviews is the connection that occurs between the interviewer and interviewee which leads to the obtaining of valuable information. Interviews also helps in clarifying and clear understanding of problems, discussion of sensitive information, obtaining personal opinions and view points and the ability to raise follow-up or impromptu questions when needed. However interviews can be a highly expensive and time consuming process and the area covered can be very minute (Evalued, 2013)

The following table depicts some interview formats as stated by University of Western Ontario (2013)

Type	Description
Structured	Same set of predetermined questions are asked from every1 in the same manner. This helps in obtaining different answers for the same question however this doesn’t ensure how the interviewee interpret the question hence posing a disadvantage.
Semi structured	There are certain number of standard questions and some different questions depending on the interviewee. Used in quantitative analysis, this helps in obtaining deeper answers according to the interviewee’s expertise and knowledge
Unstructured	There are no pre-determined set of questions and is a casual and a flexible method of interviewing where the conversation flows according to the interviewees knowledge. Drawback of this include that important questions may be eliminated and the conversation may go off track.

Table 2- Interview Formats (University of Wester Ontario, 2013)

3.      Questionnaires

Amnesty Organization (2013) states that questionnaires are an efficient method of obtaining direct and short answers as the replies are written in a limited space. Usually this type is used when the researcher is confident about the exact questions needed to be asked in order to gain the necessary information. According to University of Johannesburg (2005) questionnaires can either be self-administered (printed version are given to be filled out) or interviewer-administered (questioning and answering is done verbally while the researcher records the answer as well).

It is important to know how to design a proper questionnaire where the questions are formed and worded in a way that the users can easily answer. The following are some ways of preparing an effective questionnaire in accordance to University of Johannesburg (2013) and Malhotra (2013)

·         Identify and understand the target population

·         Prepare clear and brief questions to cover the objectives. Each question should be justified with a purpose and if questions are lengthy, it should be broken down to parts

·         A logical flow of questions should be present

·         Have a proper structure of questions asked such as structured, unstructured, multiple choice, yes/no, factual etc.

·         Examples for structure of answering can be given

·         A pilot study can be conducted for a selected group in order to determine the success of the questionnaire and to detect problems

Through questionnaires researcher can obtain a higher rate of answers as it can be given to more people in a given time where the respondents tend to answer truthfully due to the assurance of anonymity. It also helps in obtaining a standard set of answers. However disadvantages of this can be misinterpretation of questions, inability to clarify questions by the respondents and inability to ask all the necessary questions. (History Learning Site, 2013)

4.      Observations

Observations involves in noting down the environment, activities, processes etc. that the researcher is observing in order to gather necessary data. This method helps the researcher to understand the processes involved and come to conclusions which can be unbiased as there are visual aids involved in comparison to the mental images created from other methods.

According to Holah (2013) the following are some types of observations that can be conducted;

·         Participant vs. non-participant observations – when the observer participates in the process that is being observed in order to obtain a 1^st hand experience is known as participant observation while non-participant observation involves the external observation of process without participation.

·         Structured vs. unstructured observations – structured observations includes recording of results in a systematic way (having coding methods for observations which yields quantitative data while unstructured observations records without a predetermined system which yields qualitative data.

·         Controlled vs. non controlled observations – observations done under influences of external forces are controlled observations whole observations done in natural state of events are known as non-controlled observations.

According to University of Strathclyde (2013) observations help in obtaining real time data and experience in certain events which will help in collecting quality information. As it can be recorded through devices such as cameras, it can be stored for later viewing. It also causes minimal disruptions and saves time as there are no personnel involved as in interviews or questionnaires. However observations can be biased in accordance with the observer’s personal opinions. Organizations may be reluctant to allow people to observe their processes due to confidentiality issues.

Question Types

In different primary research methods, it’s important to know which questions and types to ask in order to obtain valuable information. There are several types of questions used in data collecting tools which are discussed below.

Ø  Open ended questions – these types of questions are asked in order to obtain a general understanding of the situation. Mostly helpful in obtaining opinions and reasons this type does not have choices of answers to choose from hence providing flexibility and freedom in answering hence not forcing the participants in selecting specific answers. Although open ended questions bring out rich and complex data, the disadvantages of include difficulty in analyzing and coding, excess time consumption in answering and analyzing and people being reluctant to answer. (University of Wisconsin, 2013)

Ø  Close ended questions – these type of questions are used to obtain specific answers, the strength of opinions and in situations where the researcher is aware of an issue. Here a set of answers are given to choose from thus narrowing down the answer range thus obtaining a uniform set of data. This type is easier and quick to answer thus people tend to provide answers. Ability to code and analyze answers is high if an appropriate structure is used. However the weaknesses of this type includes answers being forced out due to the provision of a predefined set of answers, options such as “none of the above” may not give precise results and if the appropriate range of answers aren’t given, it might lead to false information being obtained. (University of Wisconsin, 2013)

Ø  Dichotomous questions – these type only involves in 2 answers such as yes/no, true/false male/female etc. Dichotomous questions are appropriate to use in situations where there are only 2 possible outcomes and mostly questionnaires contains only a limited amount of these type of question as there is no rich data obtained (Social Research Methods, 2013)

Ø  Rank order scale questions – this type of questions uses a scale where rankings can be done in order to obtain data. Mostly used in obtaining user preferences and importance of a particular area, it’s best suitable for paper and online based questionnaires and surveys. According to HowTo (2013), the 2 types of scales used are Linkert Scale and Semantic Differential Scale.

·         Linkert Scale – here the participants are given a question with 5 distinct levels of scales to choose from where each option is describes the level of the score which helps in analysis of scores.

Figure 3 - Linkert Scale (HowTo, 2013)

·         Semantic Differential Scale – here apart from assigning a weightage to each score, the beginning and end of the scale is also labeled with a degree factor.

Figure 4 - Semantic Differential Scale (HowTo, 2013)

When obtaining answers, there are different types that can be obtained. The following are some response types that was discussed in the lecture

o   Nominal data – numbers assigned as identifiers. Helps to produces charts/graphs

o   Ordinal data – numbers used for ranking. Helps in calculating variances, mode, mean etc.

o   Interval data – special type of ordinal data where ranks are given as decimals

o   Ration – type of ordinal data where a value is given in comparison to another 

Question structures

When planning questionnaires or surveys, the way in which questions are positioned is important as it will affect the way the subject is approached as well as the user enthusiasm in answering. As stated by the lecturer, the following are some question structures that can be used;

·         Pyramid structure – starts with specific questions (close ended, yes/no) and leads to broad questions. This helps structuring the answers gradually as well as to warm up the user as he progress through the questionnaire

·         Funnel structure – start is done through broad questions leading to an end with structured, specific questions. Helps in obtaining quantifiable and candid results.

·         Diamond structure – this is a mixture of both. Starts with structured, followed by broad and ending again with structured questions. 

Choosing a sample

When using a sample population in order to conduct questionnaires or surveys, use of different sampling techniques is important. Sampling can be either probability sampling (based on mathematical approach and use logic to sample) or non-probability sampling (random sampling with the probability of having an error rate beyond the margin)

Probability sampling methods	Non probability sampling methods
Simple random	Convenience
Cluster	Quota
Stratified	Snowball
Systematic	Purposive

Table 4 - Sampling Methods (Bareriro and Albandoz, n. d) 

References

Amnesty Organization. 2013. Primary research: Questionnaires. [e-book] London: Amnesty Organization UK. Available through: http://www.amnesty.org.uk/uploads/documents/doc_19714.pdf [Accessed: 1 Dec 2013].

Barreiro, P. L. and Albandoz, J. P. n.d. Population and sample. Sampling techniques. [e-book] University of Seville. Available through: http://optimierung.mathematik.uni-kl.de/mamaeusch/veroeffentlichungen/ver_texte/sampling_en.pdf [Accessed: 4 Dec 2013].

Clarke, R. 2005. Research Models And Methodologies. [e-book] New South Wales: University of Wollongong. Available through: http://www.uow.edu.au/content/groups/public/@web/@commerce/documents/doc/uow012042.pdf [Accessed: 1 Dec 2013]

Driscoll, D. 2011. Introduction to Primary Research: Observations, Surveys, and Interviews. [e-book] Available through: http://wac.colostate.edu/books/writingspaces2/driscoll--introduction-to-primary-research.pdf [Accessed: 4 Dec 2013].

Evalued. 2013. Interviews. [online] Available at: http://www.evalued.bcu.ac.uk/tutorial/4c.htm [Accessed: 4 Dec 2013].

History Learning Site. 2013. Structured Questionnaires. [online] Available at: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/structured_questionnaires.htm [Accessed: 2 Dec 2013].

Holah. 2013. AS Psychology - Holah.co.uk - Observation. [online] Available at: http://www.holah.co.uk/investigations/observation/ [Accessed: 2 Dec 2013].

Howto. 2013. Basics of Survey and Question Design | HowTo.gov. [online] Available at: http://www.howto.gov/customer-experience/collecting-feedback/basics-of-survey-and-question-design [Accessed: 4 Dec 2013].

Kajornboon, A. 2013. Using interviews as research instruments. [e-book] Bangkok: Language Center, Chulalongkorn University. Available through: http://www.culi.chula.ac.th/e-journal/bod/annabel.pdf [Accessed: 2 Dec 2013].

Queens Treasury And Trade. 2013. Survey methods (Government Statistician, Queensland Treasury and Trade). [online] Available at: http://www.oesr.qld.gov.au/about-statistics/survey-methods/ [Accessed: 3 Dec 2013].

Ranasinghe, P. 2011. Research Methodology. [report] Kelaniya: Department of Library and Information Science, University of Kelaniya.

Social Research Methods. 2013. Types Of Questions. [online] Available at: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/questype.php [Accessed: 4 Dec 2013].

University Of Johannesburg. 2005. Questionnaire Design. [e-book] Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg. Available through: http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Research/Statkon/Documents/Statkon%20Questionaire%20Design.pdf [Accessed: 3 Dec 2013].

University Of Strathclyde. 2013. Advantages and disadvantages of observation - University of Strathclyde. [online] Available at: http://www.strath.ac.uk/aer/materials/3datacollection/unit5/advantagesanddisadvantagesofobservation/ [Accessed: 3 Dec 2013].

University Of Western Ontario. 2013. Types of Interviews. [online] Available at: http://www.success.uwo.ca/careers/prepare_for_interviews/types_of_interviews.html [Accessed: 3 Dec 2013].

University Of Wisconsin. 2013. When Should I Use Open-Ended Questions?. [online] Available at: http://www.uwex.edu/ces/tobaccoeval/resources/surveyquestionstype.html [Accessed: 4 Dec 2013].

Webster Dictionary. 2013. Research - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. [online] Available at: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/research [Accessed: 1 Dec 2013].